Psychology and Theatre:
The Intersection of Color Theory and Scenic Artistry
Color has always played an important role in human life. For centuries, color has been integral to many things, from art, to science, to survival, and to theatrical scenic design. There has been a long span of time between the days when early humans were foraging for the non-dangerous colored berry to eat, to today, when someone can go to their local theatre and see an arrangement of designs and colors onstage for their own enjoyment. It is likely that the visual and perception system we have today that allows us to see color in the first place developed — in Robert L. Solso’s words in Psychology of Art and the Evolution of the Conscious Brain (2003) — to help us “find food (and other necessities), to react to local environmental stimuli, and to interact comparably with the needs of other organisms,” (96). Understanding how people react to local environmental stimuli in the context of color can influence a scenic designer’s choices. The following paragraphs will discuss a brief history on color theory, what psychologists have studied about color, how color factors in to a scenic designer and artist’s craft, and how some prominent designers have utilized color, by looking at an example of one of their successful designs. Together, all these ideas, including the understanding of color theory, can help scenic designers and artists improve their craft, and achieve certain effects on their audiences.
Part I
Color has been used in art and design ever since early humans would draw on cave walls about their hunting adventures. When philosophers began to ponder about the nature of the universe, color was surely included in their ideas. Aristotle was among the first to develop a theory of color. He believed colors were god-sent celestial rays, and that “the simple colors are the ones associated with the prime bodies, fire, air, water, and earth” (Arnheim, 206). Aristotle’s ideas were the starting point in a long line of philosophers and scientists that wanted to know the meaning of color.
In her work, The Power of Color: Shades of Meaning (2008), Denise D.C. Childress examines those who expanded on the ideas set forth by Aristotle, with relevance to painting. Leonardo da Vinci was one who came forward with slightly alternate ideas. He believed both white and black were essential to painting, while others saw white as more important. He created the atmospheric perspective in painting to create the illusion of distance, and focused on the use of light and dark shading to “communicate the illusions of three-dimensional objects” on a two-dimensional plane (10).
Isaac Newton developed the first color wheel, and jumpstarted the scientific understanding of color. Whereas before color was subject to philosophical speculation (as opposed to scientific), Newton discovered that light was not inherently colored, but only white, and that the colors humans see is part of a spectrum of wavelengths (11).
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was probably the one who made the most steps towards the field of color psychology. Goethe took Newton’s research, but wanted to see how people experienced color. Doing so, he developed his own color wheel with symbolic associations, and divided colors into positive and negative groups. The positive colors were warm, such as red and yellow, and “capable of inducing stimulating, cheerful associations,” (12). The negative colors were cool, such as blue and violet, which he associated with “effects of weakness and nervousness,” (12). Michel Chevreul, a French chemist, differentiated between the harmony of analogous colors, and the harmony of contrasting colors (12). Wassily Kandinsky, a Russian painter, believed when white was added to colors, they became more vibrant and full of movement, but when black was added, they became more static and lifeless (18). All the ideas and discoveries of these people (and many others) furthered the field of color theory. Their ideas can still be recognized in how we view color today, and in how the scenic artist treats color when painting, or in how a scenic designer plans out their set. While these people had many things to say about color, it wasn’t until more recently when psychologists began to study the effect colors had on people in more controlled settings.
In the context of historical paintings, color has always been elusive to examine, since colors can fade within years, let alone decades or centuries. When color did become a focus for psychologists, it was how humans interact with color in the present, rather than how older paintings made people feel. Psychologists looked into how color made us feel, what we associated with certain colors, how colored is registered in the brain, and even how color affects us physically. Trying to develop a theory of color through the lenses of psychology was not an easy task. In retrospect, early experiments and studies had some unreliable results. In her expansive work, The Psychology of Color and Design (1975), Deborah T. Sharpe reveals many of the issues surrounding studies on color psychology. She starts by showing that early ideas about color psychology were “based on a person’s trial and error rather than scientific research” (2). Color samples were not identical, even swatches of the same color from the same manufacturer could have their differences (3). The type of lighting used in the studies was not the same. She goes on to say that “scientific investigations have not been without their shortcomings in this area either; too many have ambiguous word lists, inadequate control of stimuli, or inappropriate size and diversity of subjects” (55). She explains that the field of color psychology is not an exact science either, especially since people have their own very subjective views about certain colors. However, psychologists did glean some information from their studies.
Several studies show that different colors have different associations, which will be explored here. Warm colors like red, yellow, and orange are associated with excitement, stimulation, and forwardness (55). They also create physiological responses, and have been shown to “increase pulse rate, heartbeat and respiration” (63). Red is also associated with love, passion, anger, and heat. Yellow is associated with the sun, laughter, and energy. Cool colors like blue and green can be associated with calmness, and peace. The cool colors have been show to slow down the pulse rate, heartbeat, and respiration at times (63). Blue is associated with somberness, as well as “dignity, poise, and reserve” (91). Green is linked with nature, and has a combination of the “gaiety of yellow and the dignity of blue” (92). The color purple is linked with royalty, sadness, splendor and reverence. The neutral colors like black, gray, and brown are associated with “melancholy, sadness, and depression” (55). Black reminds people of the night, and is mysterious, somber, dignified, and provides a dramatic contrast color (92). Gray is a conservative color, quiet and neutral. Aside from all the other colors, white is associated with purity, innocence, and cleanliness. All these findings are the general associations of each color Sharpe gleans from multiple studies. The results of some studies are further expanded on in Robert L. Solso’s work. He states:
There is an interaction between perceived brightness and color. ‘Deeper’ colors, for example saturated blues, violets, and reds, appear less bright than greens and yellows, even though their physical intensity may be equal… In addition to their different sensations of brightness, different colors have different psychological effects on us: bright colors tend to cheer; dark to depress. (101)
These ideas on colors pop up with each study done, and reflect some of the ideas of philosophers and artists in the past. Associations with the colors are not the only important piece of information that the studies discovered, and the psychological idea discussed next can be very important to the scenic designer.
Solso discusses the concept of schemata in his work. In psychology, schemata are the ideas, concepts, and prototypes that humans have of objects, things, ideas, places, and situations. Schemata “represent the structure of an object, scene, or idea as well as the relationships between concepts” (224). To us it may seem just like common sense, but schemata is what informs us about how things are supposed to look. We, as humans, expect to see things as we think they should appear, but not always as how they actually do appear. Here is where the work of a scenic designer and artist really come in. When designing a street scene, we subconsciously rely on a “street schema.” We expect to see brick or cobblestone or cement on the ground, not carpet. We expect that street to be colored like normal stone or dirt, and not in rainbow colors. We expect to see fire hydrants on the ground, and not on a wall. We expect to see open air in some sense, and not an interior roof above our heads. All these are associated with the street schema, and guide a designer when they want to go for realism. Now, it is very possible to go completely against this schema for a specific effect. It does create visual dissonance, which Solso describes as “a state of psychological tension caused when one experiences a disparity between what one expects to see and what one actually sees,” (235). Trying to create this dissonance can be effective, and make the designer’s audience feel a certain way, either positively or negatively. For example, a rainbow road might effect an audience in a more positive, jubilant way, while a black colored apple would have a negative effect. Numerous ideas and concepts go into a scenic designer or artist’s creations, and all the psychological associations with color and schemata discussed are part of that creative process. Knowing all this information about color can help a designer during their creative process.
Part II
Separate from color psychology, there is much that goes into theatrical design in general. In the context of scenic design, it’s important to plan what every set piece will be in color. The obvious thing to consider is the setting. Is it a brick building exterior? Or an interior with marble flooring? Time period is another important layer to consider during the design process. Brick and stone work done in the 1800’s would probably be different than brick and stonework done in 2016. As a designer, it’s important to have an idea for what the sets will be painted. Using the previously discussed psychology of color, a designer has numerous possibilities when planning. Obviously not every comedy needs bright, joy-inducing colors. Not every tragedy needs a dreary background. In tandem with a director’s vision, a designer can play around with an audience’s emotions.
On a more specific level, the colors of paint are important to plan, more so for the scenic artist than the designer. Paint has different qualities. It can have different hues, intensities, or levels. Paint can be flat, glossy, translucent. Together with a set designer’s vision, a painter will have to mix the correct colors, and use different techniques to achieve a designer’s goals. The painter can use different tricks and techniques to fool the audience eye. Cartooning and shadow help give the illusion of depth to a person’s eye. As Samuel Selden and Tom Rezzuto discuss in their book, Essentials of Stage Scenery, “all painting for the stage must be done in a bold, straightforward way. Effects must be seen from a distance. Fussy details and color are consequentially lost upon and audience” (164). Shadows, highlights, and perspective all can fool the eye. It’s also important to understand that colors are affected by their surrounding colors. A green would give a different feel when next to a blue than it might when next to a red.
Finally, a designer and artist must be aware of stage lighting and its qualities. While the lighting itself is in the domain of a lighting designer, it’s an important part to keep in mind when planning for a set or mixing colors. It’s important to think of how the light will interact with the paint, and how the light will look on the stage.
Will certain parts of the stage be in more shadow than others? Will a lighting designer’s choice for a wash end up washing out your color choice for a wall? Lighting will affect how the audience perceives a design choice or painting technique. A bad combination of paints and lights can make any intended effect planned for a set just fall flat. (For clarification, the image left is not an example of this.)
One of the great ways to learn and gather ideas for scenic designs and artistry is by looking at those who have worked in the past. A designer or artist can look at different sets created by great designers and get some ideas for themselves, or even just enjoy the aesthetics created by those designers. One can take a look as some successful designers and see what they have to say about color, and we can apply color theory to examine the effects their own sets might have had on an audience.
Widely considered the most successful designer in the past century was Boris Aronson, known for his work on pieces such as Fiddler on the Roof, Cabaret, and Company, among others. Aronson was extremely talented, and even experimental at times with his designs. When it came to designing, he believed “the set should permit varied movement, each scene should contain the mood of the whole play, and through the fusion of color and form, the setting should be beautiful in its own right” (Pendergast). The conscious use of color is a necessity to create a strong set, and that is especially seen in Aronson’s designs for Fiddler on the Roof (1964).
When looking at his drawings for Fiddler, you can see a prevalence of blue and cool colors. As psychologists have discovered, blues can create a sense of somberness, and also a sense of dignity. Both of these feelings would emphasize the themes of the show. Howard Taubman, in his review of the musical, felt that Aronson’s set gave several scenes a “dimension of beauty” and help the show catch “the essence of a moment in history with sentiment and radiance” (56). The success of the musical, and its positive reception, not only prove Aronson’s talents, but also show that a well-designed set is very important to audiences.
Another very successful designer in the 20th century was Jo Mielziner. Both a scenic and lighting designer, Mielziner was notable for his work on shows such as Death of a Salesman, South Pacific, The King and I, and Guys and Dolls, among several others. His work on the show Guys and Dolls in 1950 can be examined to note his use of color. In his book, Designing for the Theatre (1965), Mielziner discusses his work on the show by stating:
The zany world of Damon Runyon calls for the most heightened treatment. A realistic, literal Broadway would look mighty drab and dull as the setting for Guys and Dolls, for this wonderful story of Times Square characters has vitality, fantasy, and the best kind of earthy vulgarity…. [No one] would recognize any of the fanciful pipes or cables in my sewer — transposition of both form and color was essential to keep within the vivid style of this production. (167)
His decision to make the sets more fantastic by emphasizing unusual color schemes works well with the show. Especially when looking at his design for the side street off of Broadway we can see the warmth of the Broadway lights, and the heightened use of yellows and oranges. These colors are associated with excitement, energy, and cheerfulness. This is very much the intention of using those colors, especially in contrast to the colors of the side street itself, which are more muted and cool (note the deep blue/orange contrast that has been heavily used today). Mielziner’s use of colors, and their intended effects on an audience do line up with what color psychologists have found in their studies.
Moving past the 20th century into the 21st, one of the most notable American set designers would be Bob Crowley. Crowley has won several awards for his work on shows such as Aida, The History Boys, Mary Poppins, Once, and An American in Paris. When designing, he notes that “at every single part of the process, there are hundreds of decisions being made all the time, about colour, about texture, about detail, about light, about where you place something on a stage” (Williams, “Theatre Masterclass”). This goes to prove that what numerous successful set designers have in common is the deep awareness of how every fine detail needs to be thought out, especially with color.
When looking at Crowley’s work on the 2011 production of Once, the effects of a more realistic set’s colors can be discussed. In an interview, Crowley talks about the show, saying “The world of Once takes place in Dublin, it’s current, it’s a contemporary piece…it’s about people who don’t have very much money, so it has a kind of thrift shop quality about the whole thing” (“Six Time Tony Winner”). He even goes on to reveal that the tables in the show were thrifted, and painted different colors. This decision goes against the usual schema for a table, as a person expects a table to be wood grained or look like the material it’s made of. By subverting that, and making the tables these bright pinks, blues, and such, it helps establish that thrift shop quality Crowley intended. Once is set in a pub, and is made to be a more intimate show. The warmth of the walls and flooring is inviting, and when blue lights are focused on the back walls, it brings the warmth of the floor and costumes forward. While working with a more realistic set, Crowley’s use of color is interesting to examine.
In conclusion, there are numerous concepts that go through a designer’s brain when they are working on a set. While the field of color psychology is not an exact science, it does have many things to say about how humans interact with color. By taking the time to learn a few concepts of color psychology, a designer can keep them in mind when they create a set, and use these concepts to their advantage. This is especially true if a designer wants to create a specific effect based on color alone. Numerous designers in the past have used color to their advantage, and it has greatly improved their work and its impact on an audience. Some may want to consider the psychology of color as hogwash, and it is within their right to do so. An understanding of color psychology is not required to develop great sets. However, taking it into consideration surely can only be of benefit to set designers and scenic artists everywhere. Even designers in other areas such as lighting and costumes can certainly stand to learn some color psychology.
(this work was adapted from my university thesis titled “The Intersection of Color Theory and Scenic Artistry”)
Works Cited:
Arnheim, Rudolph. New Essays on the Psychology of Art. University of California Press, 1986. Print.
Childress, Denise D.C. The Power of Color: Shades of Meaning. MA Thesis, University of Houston Clear Lake, 2008. Print.
Mielziner, Jo. Designer for the Theatre: A Memoir and Portfolio. Bramhall House, 1965. Print.
Pendergast, Sara. Contemporary Designers. 3rd Ed. St. James Press, 1997.
Rich, Frank. The Theatre Art of Boris Aronson. Knopft, 1987. Print
Selden, Samuel & Tom Rezzuto. Essentials of Stage Scenery. Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1972. Print.
Sharpe, Deborah T. The Psychology of Color and Design. Littlefield, Adams & Co., 1975. Print.
“Six Time Tony Winner Bob Crowley Shares the Secret to Recreating Pub Life in ‘Once.’” YouTube, uploaded by Broadwaycom. 18 Apr. 2013. Web.
Solso, Robert L. The Psychology of Art and the Evolution of the Conscious Brain. The MIT Press, 2003. Print.
Taubman, Howard. “Theater: Mostel as Tevye in ‘Fiddler on the Roof.’” New York Times, 23 Sep. 1964. p.56
Williams, Imogen R. “Theatre Masterclass: Bob Crowley, Set and Costume Designer.” The Guardian. 2 Oct. 2009. Web.
